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8. Security - check for the yellow padlock on the Ancient Greek site before you buy, and the s after http:/ /i.e. https:// = a secure site

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10. Payment - ready to pay for your Ancient Greek, then use your credit card or PayPal! Be aware of companies that don't accept them, there may be genuine reasons but given the huge amount of choice you have when buying online there is no reason at all not to buy via credit card or PayPal.

{{language|name =Ancient Greek|nativename = |region =eastern Mediterranean Sea|extinct =developed into Koine Greek by the 4th century BC|iso2 =grc|iso3=grc-->

Ancient Greek refers to the second stage in the history of the [Greek languageAndriotis, Nikolaos P. History of the Greek language as it existed during the Archaic Greece (9th–6th centuries Anno Domini) and Classical Greece (5th–4th centuries BC) periods in Greece. The Ancient Greece era of Greek history includes also the Hellenistic (post-Classic) age, which formally constitutes its own stage in the Greek language known as Koine Greek.

Ancient Greek is the language of the Homer, including the Iliad and the Odyssey, and of the great works of literature and philosophy of the Athens, which came to be the foundations of Western civilisation's drama and literary theory, as well as modern mathematics and sciences.

For information on the Hellenic language family prior to the creation of the Greek alphabet, see articles Mycenaean language and Proto-Greek language.

's Odyssey

Dialects of Ancient Greek The origins, early forms, and early development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood, owing to the lack of contemporaneous evidence. There are several theories about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language language (not later than 2000 BC), and about 1200 BC. They have the same general outline but differ in some of the detail. The only attested dialect from this periodImprecisely attested and somewhat reconstructive due to its being written in a syllabary (Linear B) rather than an alphabet. is Mycenaean language, but its relationship to the historical dialects and the historical circumstances of the times imply that the overall groups already existed in some form.

The major dialect groups of the Ancient Greek period can be assumed to have developed not later than 1100 BC, at the time of the Dorian invasion(s), and their first appearances as precise alphabetic writing began in the 8th Century BC. The invasion would not be "Dorian" unless the invaders had some cultural relationship to the historical Dorians; moreover, the invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, who regarded themselves as descendants of the population displaced by or contending with the Dorians.

The ancient Greeks themselves considered there to be three major divisions of the Greek people, into Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians (including Athenians), each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Allowing for their oversight of Arcadian, an obscure mountain dialect, and Cyprian, far from the center of Greek scholarship, this division of people and language is quite similar to the results of modern archaeological-linguistic investigation.

One standard formulation for the dialects is:This one is to be found in recent versions of the Encyclopedia Britannica, which also lists the major works defining the subject..









West and non-west Greek is the strongest and earliest division, with the non-west in subsets of Ionic-Attic (or Attic-Ionic) and Aeolic vs. Arcado-Cyprian, or Aeolic and Arcado-Cyprian vs. Ionic-Attic. Often non-west is called East Greek.

The Arcado-Cyprian group is descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greece Greek of the Bronze Age.

Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect. Thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree.

Pamphylian Greek, spoken in a small area on the south-western coast of Asia Minor and little preserved in inscriptions, may be either a fifth major dialect group, or Mycenaean Greek overlaid by Doric, with a non-Greek native influence.

The highly controversial native language of Ancient Macedonian language may have been a non-Greek Indo-European language, or a highly-divergent branch of Northwest Greek, or an additional major dialect group of Ancient Greek.

Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, or an island. Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric (including Cretan Doric), Southern Peloponnesus Doric (including Doric Greek, the dialect of Sparta), and Northern Peloponnesus Doric (including Corinthian). The famous Lesbian dialect was a member of the Aegean/Asiatic Aeolic sub-group. All the groups were represented by colonies beyond Greece proper as well, and these colonies generally developed local characteristics, often under the influence of settlers or neighbors speaking different Greek dialects.

The dialects outside the Ionic group are known mainly from inscriptions, notable exceptions being fragments of the works of the poetess from the island of Lesbos, Sappho, and the poems of the Spartan poet, Pindar.

After the conquests of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BC, a new international dialect known as Koine or Common Greek developed, largely based on Attic Greek, but with influence from other dialects. This dialect slowly replaced most of the older dialects, although Doric dialect has survived to the present in the form of the Tsakonian and Griko dialects of Modern Greek. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek. By about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosized into Medieval Greek.

Sound changes These sound changes since Proto-Greek language affect most or all Ancient Greek dialects:



Note that /w/ and /j/, when following a vowel and not preceding a vowel, combined early on with the vowel to form a diphthong and were thus not lost.

The loss of /h/ and /w/ after a consonant were often accompanied by compensatory lengthening of a preceding vowel. The loss of /j/ after a consonant was accompanied by a large number of complex changes, including diphthongization of a preceding vowel or palatalization or other change to a directly preceding consonant. Some examples:



The results of vowel contraction were complex with dialect to dialect. Such contractions occur in the inflection of a number of different noun and verb classes and are among the most difficult aspects of Ancient Greek grammar. They were particularly important in the large class of contracted verbs, denominative verbs formed from nouns and adjectives ending in a vowel. (In fact, the reflex of contracted verbs in Modern Greek—i.e., the set of verbs derived from Ancient Greek contracted verbs—represents one of the two main classes of verbs in that language.)

Phonology The pronunciation of Koine Greek changed considerably from Ancient Greek, although the orthography still reflects features of the older language (see W. Sidney Allen, Vox Graeca – a guide to the pronunciation of Classical Greek). For a detailed description on the phonology changes from Ancient to Hellenistic periods of the Greek language, see the article on Koine Greek.

The examples below are intended to represent Attic Greek in the 5th century BC. Although ancient pronunciation can never be reconstructed with certainty, Greek in particular is very well documented from this period, and there is little disagreement among linguists as to the general nature of the sounds that the letters represented.

Vowels Short vowels   [Front vowel [Back vowel   [unrounded vowel [rounded vowel [unrounded vowel [rounded vowel [Close vowel {{IPA|/i/--> {{IPA|/y/-->     [Close-mid vowel {{IPA|/e/-->     {{IPA|/o/--> [Open vowel {{IPA|/a/-->

Long vowels   [Front vowel [Back vowel   [unrounded vowel [rounded vowel [unrounded vowel [rounded vowel [Close vowel {{IPA|/iː/--> {{IPA|/yː/-->     [Close-mid vowel {{IPA|/eː/-->     {{IPA|/oː/--> [Open-mid vowel {{IPA|/ɛː/-->     {{IPA|/ɔː/--> [Open vowel {{IPA|/aː/-->

probably raised to by the fourth century BC.

Consonants   [Front vowel [Back vowel {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" border="1"! width="100px"|! bilabial consonant! dental consonant! velar consonant! glottal consonant|-| plosive consonant| align="center"| | align="center"| | align="center"| | align="center"|  |-| Aspiration (phonetics) plosive consonant| align="center"| | align="center"| | align="center"| | align="center"|  |-| nasal consonant| align="center"| | align="center"| | align="center"| | align="center"|  |-| Trill consonant| align="center"|  | align="center"| | align="center"|  | align="center"|  |-| fricative consonant| align="center"|  | align="center"| | align="center"|  | align="center"| |-| Lateral approximant| align="center"|  | align="center"| | align="center"|  | align="center"|  |}

was an allophone of , used before voiced consonants; was an allophone of used before velars, while , written (), was probably a voiceless allophone of used word initially.

Consonant classes There are three main classes of consonants:

Consonant contractions In verb conjugation, one consonant often comes up against the other. Various sandhi rules apply.

Rules:



Compensatory lengthening There are different schemes for compensatory lengthening, depending on where it happens. The differences are in whether becomes or , and whether and become the closed values and or the open ones and .

Morphology Greek, like all of the older Indo-European languages, is highly inflected. It is highly archaic in its preservation of Proto-Indo-European language forms. In Ancient Greek nouns (including proper nouns) have five Declension (nominative, genitive, dative, Accusative case and vocative), three Grammatical gender (Grammatical gender, Grammatical gender and neuter), and three Grammatical number (singular, dual grammatical number and plural). Verbs have four Grammatical mood (indicative mood, imperative mood, subjunctive mood, and optative mood), three Grammatical voice (active voice, middle voice and passive voice), as well as three Grammatical person (first, second and third) and various other forms. Verbs are conjugated through seven Grammatical tense: the present tense, future tense and imperfect tense tenses are imperfective in Grammatical aspect; the aorist tense (perfective aspect); a perfect tense, pluperfect and future perfect (all with perfect aspect). Most tenses display all four moods and three voices, although there is no future subjunctive or imperative. There are infinitives and participles corresponding to the finite combinations of tense, aspect and voice.

Augment The indicative of past Grammatical tenses adds (conceptually, at least) a prefix /e-/. This was probably originally a separate word, meaning something like "then", added because tenses in PIE had primarily aspectual meaning. The augment is added to the indicative of the aorist, imperfect and pluperfect, but not to any of the other forms of the aorist (no other forms of the imperfect and pluperfect exist).

There are two kinds of augment in Greek, syllabic and quantitative. The syllabic augment is added to stems beginning with consonants, and simply prefixes e (stems beginning with r, however, add er). The quantitative augment is added to stems beginning with vowels, and involves lengthening the vowel:



Some verbs augment irregularly; the most common variation is e -> ei. The irregularity can be explained diachronically by the loss of s between vowels.

Following Homer's practice, the augment is sometimes not made in poetry, especially Epic Greek poetry.

The augment sometimes substitutes for reduplication; see below.

Reduplication Almost all forms of the perfect, pluperfect and future perfect reduplicate the initial syllable of the verb stem. (Note that a few irregular forms of perfect do not reduplicate, whereas a handful of irregular aorists reduplicate.) There are three types of reduplication:



Irregular duplication can be understood diachronically. For example, lambanō (root lab) has the perfect stem eilēpha (not *lelēpha) because it was originally slambanō, with perfect seslēpha, becoming eilēpha through (semi-)regular change.

Reduplication is also visible in the present tense stems of certain verbs. These stems add a syllable consisting of the root's initial consonant followed by i. A nasal consonant appears after the reduplication in some verbs.Palmer, Leonard. (1996). The Greek Language (p. 262). Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.

Writing system Ancient Greek was written in the Greek alphabet, with some variation among dialects. Early texts are written in boustrephedon style, but left-to-right became standard during the classic period. Modern editions of Ancient Greek texts are usually written with polytonic orthography, interword spacing, modern punctuation, and sometimes capitalization, but these were all introduced later.

Example text The following polytonic Greek text is from the Apology (Plato) by Plato:

Transliterated into the Latin alphabet using a modern version of the Pronunciation of Ancient Greek in teaching: Hóti mèn humeîs, ô ándres Athēnaîoi, pepónthate hupò tôn emôn katēgórōn, ouk oîda: eg d' oûn kaì autòs hup' autōn olígou emautoû epelathómēn, hoútō pithanôs élegon. Kaítoi alēthés ge hōs épos eipeîn oudèn eirkasin.

Translated into English: Whether you, men of Athens, have been affected by my accusers, I do not know; but I, for my part, almost forgot my own identity, so persuasively did they talk; and yet there is hardly a word of truth in what they have said.

See also

External links

References

{{language|name =Ancient Greek|nativename = |region =eastern Mediterranean Sea|extinct =developed into Koine Greek by the 4th century BC|iso2 =grc|iso3=grc-->

Ancient Greek refers to the second stage in the history of the [Greek languageAndriotis, Nikolaos P. History of the Greek language as it existed during the Archaic Greece (9th–6th centuries Anno Domini) and Classical Greece (5th–4th centuries BC) periods in Greece. The Ancient Greece era of Greek history includes also the Hellenistic (post-Classic) age, which formally constitutes its own stage in the Greek language known as Koine Greek.

Ancient Greek is the language of the Homer, including the Iliad and the Odyssey, and of the great works of literature and philosophy of the Athens, which came to be the foundations of Western civilisation's drama and literary theory, as well as modern mathematics and sciences.

For information on the Hellenic language family prior to the creation of the Greek alphabet, see articles Mycenaean language and Proto-Greek language.

's Odyssey

Dialects of Ancient Greek The origins, early forms, and early development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood, owing to the lack of contemporaneous evidence. There are several theories about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language language (not later than 2000 BC), and about 1200 BC. They have the same general outline but differ in some of the detail. The only attested dialect from this periodImprecisely attested and somewhat reconstructive due to its being written in a syllabary (Linear B) rather than an alphabet. is Mycenaean language, but its relationship to the historical dialects and the historical circumstances of the times imply that the overall groups already existed in some form.

The major dialect groups of the Ancient Greek period can be assumed to have developed not later than 1100 BC, at the time of the Dorian invasion(s), and their first appearances as precise alphabetic writing began in the 8th Century BC. The invasion would not be "Dorian" unless the invaders had some cultural relationship to the historical Dorians; moreover, the invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, who regarded themselves as descendants of the population displaced by or contending with the Dorians.

The ancient Greeks themselves considered there to be three major divisions of the Greek people, into Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians (including Athenians), each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Allowing for their oversight of Arcadian, an obscure mountain dialect, and Cyprian, far from the center of Greek scholarship, this division of people and language is quite similar to the results of modern archaeological-linguistic investigation.

One standard formulation for the dialects is:This one is to be found in recent versions of the Encyclopedia Britannica, which also lists the major works defining the subject..









West and non-west Greek is the strongest and earliest division, with the non-west in subsets of Ionic-Attic (or Attic-Ionic) and Aeolic vs. Arcado-Cyprian, or Aeolic and Arcado-Cyprian vs. Ionic-Attic. Often non-west is called East Greek.

The Arcado-Cyprian group is descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greece Greek of the Bronze Age.

Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect. Thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree.

Pamphylian Greek, spoken in a small area on the south-western coast of Asia Minor and little preserved in inscriptions, may be either a fifth major dialect group, or Mycenaean Greek overlaid by Doric, with a non-Greek native influence.

The highly controversial native language of Ancient Macedonian language may have been a non-Greek Indo-European language, or a highly-divergent branch of Northwest Greek, or an additional major dialect group of Ancient Greek.

Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, or an island. Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric (including Cretan Doric), Southern Peloponnesus Doric (including Doric Greek, the dialect of Sparta), and Northern Peloponnesus Doric (including Corinthian). The famous Lesbian dialect was a member of the Aegean/Asiatic Aeolic sub-group. All the groups were represented by colonies beyond Greece proper as well, and these colonies generally developed local characteristics, often under the influence of settlers or neighbors speaking different Greek dialects.

The dialects outside the Ionic group are known mainly from inscriptions, notable exceptions being fragments of the works of the poetess from the island of Lesbos, Sappho, and the poems of the Spartan poet, Pindar.

After the conquests of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BC, a new international dialect known as Koine or Common Greek developed, largely based on Attic Greek, but with influence from other dialects. This dialect slowly replaced most of the older dialects, although Doric dialect has survived to the present in the form of the Tsakonian and Griko dialects of Modern Greek. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek. By about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosized into Medieval Greek.

Sound changes These sound changes since Proto-Greek language affect most or all Ancient Greek dialects:



Note that /w/ and /j/, when following a vowel and not preceding a vowel, combined early on with the vowel to form a diphthong and were thus not lost.

The loss of /h/ and /w/ after a consonant were often accompanied by compensatory lengthening of a preceding vowel. The loss of /j/ after a consonant was accompanied by a large number of complex changes, including diphthongization of a preceding vowel or palatalization or other change to a directly preceding consonant. Some examples:



The results of vowel contraction were complex with dialect to dialect. Such contractions occur in the inflection of a number of different noun and verb classes and are among the most difficult aspects of Ancient Greek grammar. They were particularly important in the large class of contracted verbs, denominative verbs formed from nouns and adjectives ending in a vowel. (In fact, the reflex of contracted verbs in Modern Greek—i.e., the set of verbs derived from Ancient Greek contracted verbs—represents one of the two main classes of verbs in that language.)

Phonology The pronunciation of Koine Greek changed considerably from Ancient Greek, although the orthography still reflects features of the older language (see W. Sidney Allen, Vox Graeca – a guide to the pronunciation of Classical Greek). For a detailed description on the phonology changes from Ancient to Hellenistic periods of the Greek language, see the article on Koine Greek.

The examples below are intended to represent Attic Greek in the 5th century BC. Although ancient pronunciation can never be reconstructed with certainty, Greek in particular is very well documented from this period, and there is little disagreement among linguists as to the general nature of the sounds that the letters represented.

Vowels Short vowels   [Front vowel [Back vowel   [unrounded vowel [rounded vowel [unrounded vowel [rounded vowel [Close vowel {{IPA|/i/--> {{IPA|/y/-->     [Close-mid vowel {{IPA|/e/-->     {{IPA|/o/--> [Open vowel {{IPA|/a/-->

Long vowels   [Front vowel [Back vowel   [unrounded vowel [rounded vowel [unrounded vowel [rounded vowel [Close vowel {{IPA|/iː/--> {{IPA|/yː/-->     [Close-mid vowel {{IPA|/eː/-->     {{IPA|/oː/--> [Open-mid vowel {{IPA|/ɛː/-->     {{IPA|/ɔː/--> [Open vowel {{IPA|/aː/-->

probably raised to by the fourth century BC.

Consonants   [Front vowel [Back vowel {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" border="1"! width="100px"|! bilabial consonant! dental consonant! velar consonant! glottal consonant|-| plosive consonant| align="center"| | align="center"| | align="center"| | align="center"|  |-| Aspiration (phonetics) plosive consonant| align="center"| | align="center"| | align="center"| | align="center"|  |-| nasal consonant| align="center"| | align="center"| | align="center"| | align="center"|  |-| Trill consonant| align="center"|  | align="center"| | align="center"|  | align="center"|  |-| fricative consonant| align="center"|  | align="center"| | align="center"|  | align="center"| |-| Lateral approximant| align="center"|  | align="center"| | align="center"|  | align="center"|  |}

was an allophone of , used before voiced consonants; was an allophone of used before velars, while , written (), was probably a voiceless allophone of used word initially.

Consonant classes There are three main classes of consonants:

Consonant contractions In verb conjugation, one consonant often comes up against the other. Various sandhi rules apply.

Rules:



Compensatory lengthening There are different schemes for compensatory lengthening, depending on where it happens. The differences are in whether becomes or , and whether and become the closed values and or the open ones and .

Morphology Greek, like all of the older Indo-European languages, is highly inflected. It is highly archaic in its preservation of Proto-Indo-European language forms. In Ancient Greek nouns (including proper nouns) have five Declension (nominative, genitive, dative, Accusative case and vocative), three Grammatical gender (Grammatical gender, Grammatical gender and neuter), and three Grammatical number (singular, dual grammatical number and plural). Verbs have four Grammatical mood (indicative mood, imperative mood, subjunctive mood, and optative mood), three Grammatical voice (active voice, middle voice and passive voice), as well as three Grammatical person (first, second and third) and various other forms. Verbs are conjugated through seven Grammatical tense: the present tense, future tense and imperfect tense tenses are imperfective in Grammatical aspect; the aorist tense (perfective aspect); a perfect tense, pluperfect and future perfect (all with perfect aspect). Most tenses display all four moods and three voices, although there is no future subjunctive or imperative. There are infinitives and participles corresponding to the finite combinations of tense, aspect and voice.

Augment The indicative of past Grammatical tenses adds (conceptually, at least) a prefix /e-/. This was probably originally a separate word, meaning something like "then", added because tenses in PIE had primarily aspectual meaning. The augment is added to the indicative of the aorist, imperfect and pluperfect, but not to any of the other forms of the aorist (no other forms of the imperfect and pluperfect exist).

There are two kinds of augment in Greek, syllabic and quantitative. The syllabic augment is added to stems beginning with consonants, and simply prefixes e (stems beginning with r, however, add er). The quantitative augment is added to stems beginning with vowels, and involves lengthening the vowel:



Some verbs augment irregularly; the most common variation is e -> ei. The irregularity can be explained diachronically by the loss of s between vowels.

Following Homer's practice, the augment is sometimes not made in poetry, especially Epic Greek poetry.

The augment sometimes substitutes for reduplication; see below.

Reduplication Almost all forms of the perfect, pluperfect and future perfect reduplicate the initial syllable of the verb stem. (Note that a few irregular forms of perfect do not reduplicate, whereas a handful of irregular aorists reduplicate.) There are three types of reduplication:



Irregular duplication can be understood diachronically. For example, lambanō (root lab) has the perfect stem eilēpha (not *lelēpha) because it was originally slambanō, with perfect seslēpha, becoming eilēpha through (semi-)regular change.

Reduplication is also visible in the present tense stems of certain verbs. These stems add a syllable consisting of the root's initial consonant followed by i. A nasal consonant appears after the reduplication in some verbs.Palmer, Leonard. (1996). The Greek Language (p. 262). Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.

Writing system Ancient Greek was written in the Greek alphabet, with some variation among dialects. Early texts are written in boustrephedon style, but left-to-right became standard during the classic period. Modern editions of Ancient Greek texts are usually written with polytonic orthography, interword spacing, modern punctuation, and sometimes capitalization, but these were all introduced later.

Example text The following polytonic Greek text is from the Apology (Plato) by Plato:

Transliterated into the Latin alphabet using a modern version of the Pronunciation of Ancient Greek in teaching: Hóti mèn humeîs, ô ándres Athēnaîoi, pepónthate hupò tôn emôn katēgórōn, ouk oîda: eg d' oûn kaì autòs hup' autōn olígou emautoû epelathómēn, hoútō pithanôs élegon. Kaítoi alēthés ge hōs épos eipeîn oudèn eirkasin.

Translated into English: Whether you, men of Athens, have been affected by my accusers, I do not know; but I, for my part, almost forgot my own identity, so persuasively did they talk; and yet there is hardly a word of truth in what they have said.

See also

External links

References



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